Active learning: As a constructivist teaching approach, active learning directly involves students in the learning process, often through hands-on activities, student-led learning, and collaborative projects.

Alternative grading: Alternative grading approaches provide a more holistic and meaningful evaluation of student learning and progress. These methods can reduce student stress, encourage deeper learning, and provide a more accurate representation of student abilities. (Clark, D., & Talbert, R. (2023). Grading for Growth : A Guide to Alternative Grading Practices That Promote Authentic Learning and Student Engagement in Higher Education / David Clark and Robert Talbert. Routledge. UT Libraries Link to Record).

Assessment: Refers to a variety of methods or tools that educators use to evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness, learning progress, skill acquisition, or educational needs of students. It encompasses everything from tests and quizzes to essays, projects, presentations, and more.

• Formative assessment: Learning evaluation that takes place throughout the course allowing for mistakes without heavy point penalties and feedback to improve understanding and performance over time. 
• High-stakes assessment: Learning evaluation that carries major weight in the overall course grade. 
• Low-stakes assessment: Learning evaluation with low point values focused on the opportunity to develop knowledge and skills.
• Summative assessment: Learning evaluation that focuses on demonstrated cumulative understanding and performance.

Constructivism: An educational philosophy that suggests learners construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiences and reflecting on those experiences. This approach is deeply rooted in the idea that learning is an active, contextualized process of building knowledge rather than passively receiving information.

• Cognitive Constructivism: Attributed to Jean Piaget (1953), cognitive constructionism centers on the individual's internal cognitive processes. Learning is seen as a process of internalizing and structuring knowledge based on personal experiences and mental processes. Here, the role of social interaction is secondary; it acknowledges social interaction but focuses on the individual's cognitive development. Learning is viewed as an active process where learners construct new ideas based on their current/past knowledge. For example, children often learn mathematical concepts by manipulating objects and experimenting on their own (e.g., counting blocks).
• Social Constructivism: Attributed to Lev Vygotsky (1962, 1978), social constructionism highlights the importance of social interaction and cultural context in the learning process. It emphasizes learning where knowledge is constructed through collaboration and interaction with others. Here, the role of social interaction is primary; learning is seen as a social process, heavily influenced by dialogue and interaction with peers or instructors. For example, students often learn new concepts through group work, discussions, and guided instruction from a teacher.

Probing questions: A type of inquiry used to gain deeper insights and understanding in a conversation or discussion. In higher education, they are particularly valuable for promoting critical thinking, reflection, and deeper engagement with the subject matter. Probing questions are a powerful tool for educators to facilitate deeper understanding, encourage critical analysis, and stimulate meaningful dialogue in the classroom. Here are some characteristics of probing questions: 

• Clarification - Ask students to clarify or expand on a point that has been made. 
• Elaboration - Encourage students to provide more detail or elaborate on their thoughts. 
• Justification - Challenge students to justify their opinions or conclusions. 
• Exploration - Invite students to explore the implications or consequences of a statement or action. 
• Reflection - Prompt students to reflect on their learning and thought processes. 

Scaffolding: First introduced by Jerome Bruner (1965), scaffolding is an educational technique whereby instructors provide support and guidance to help students achieve higher levels of understanding and skill that they would not be able to achieve independently, then gradually removing assistance as students become more proficient.

Self-regulated learning: Self-regulated learning (SRL) refers to the process by which students take control of and evaluate their own learning and behavior. It empowers students to become independent, motivated, and effective learners. SRL enhances students' ability to tackle complex tasks and adapt to different academic challenges. Key components of SRL include:

• Goal Setting - Students define clear, attainable goals for their learning activities. These goals guide their focus and efforts.
• Self-Monitoring - Students track their own progress towards their goals. This involves regularly checking their understanding and performance.
• Self-Reflection - After completing a task or reaching a milestone, students assess what they did well and what they can improve. This reflection helps them refine their strategies for future tasks.
• Strategic Planning - Based on their reflections, students develop and adapt learning strategies. This might include time management, choosing study techniques, and seeking resources or help when needed.
• Motivation Management - Students maintain and boost their motivation through intrinsic and extrinsic incentives. They understand their personal drivers and use them to stay committed to their learning goals.
• Self-Evaluation - Students evaluate the outcomes of their learning activities in relation to their goals. They consider whether they met their objectives and how effective their strategies were.

Sense of belonging: Refers to the feeling that students are accepted, valued, and engaged within their academic community. It encompasses the emotional and social connections that students form with peers, faculty, and the institution as a whole to feel that their academic contributions are recognized and appreciated. A strong sense of belonging can lead to numerous positive outcomes, including:

• Increased Academic Performance - When students feel they belong, they are more motivated and engaged, leading to better academic outcomes.
• Higher Retention Rates - Students who feel connected to their institution are more likely to stay and complete their studies.
• Enhanced Well-being - A sense of belonging contributes to students' overall mental and emotional well-being, reducing feelings of isolation and stress.
• Personal Growth - Students develop a stronger sense of identity and self-worth, which supports their personal and professional growth.

Spiral curriculum: First theorized by Jerome Bruner (1965), spiral curriculum is an instructional approach in which key concepts and skills are revisited and built upon repeatedly over time, with increasing complexity and sophistication at each iteration. Bruner hypothesized that human cognition occurs in three relatively discreet stages: 

1. Enactive: Actually manipulating and interacting with objects 
2. Iconic: Manipulating images of the objects or phenomena 
3. Symbolic: Manipulating representations of the actual objects or phenomena 

Howard Johnston, University of South Florida, March 2012.

The Spiral Curriculum. Educational Partnerships Inc. 

 

Bruner believed that students are capable of learning complex subjects, even at a young age, if the instruction is appropriately structured and revisited throughout their education. Thus, this method allows students to deepen their understanding and reinforce their learning as they encounter the material in different contexts and at various levels of difficulty. The main principles of a Spiral Curriculum include: 

• Revisiting Topics: Important concepts and skills are introduced early and revisited regularly throughout their academic career.  
• Increasing Complexity: Each time a topic is revisited, it is explored in greater depth and complexity. 
• Building on Prior Knowledge: New learning is connected to what students have previously learned, helping them integrate and expand their understanding.
• Reinforcement and Mastery: Repeated exposure to key ideas reinforces learning and helps students achieve mastery over time.